Religion and Medical Ethics Essay.

 

Ai. There are a number of treatments available to infertile couples. They are called: Artificial insemination, GIFT, ZIFT, ICSI, PID, Egg donation and Surrogate mothers.

Egg donation involves one woman donating her egg to the woman that wants to have children. The donor must be at the same stage in her menstrual cycle as the recipient. Fertilisation takes place in a fine tube. Another treatment is called ‘Artificial Insemination’. This can only be used if the man’s sperm count is low. It deals with taking some semen samples so that all the gametes alive in each sample can be put together to be inserted in the woman when she ovulates. In Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer, short for GIFT the sperm and egg are gathered in a fire tube which is inserted into the woman’s Fallopian Tube. Fertilisation then takes place naturally. ZIFT is also a treatment which involves bringing the sperm and egg together so that fertilisation can take place outside the body. The fertilised egg is then injected. ZIFT is short for Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer.Religion and Medical Ethics Essay.

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IVF stands for ‘In Vitro Fertilisation’, it deals with putting the egg and sperm in a Petri dish. Once fertilisation occurs, the zygote (fertilised egg) is put in incubation for a few days. During this time it divides into about 8 identical cells. The zygote is now known as a blastocyst. The best blastocysts are transferred into the mother’s womb. The chance of pregnancy being achieved is high if more blastocysts are inserted. However, if more than 4 are inserted then the woman may well get quads or even more. One other treatment is called ‘Intra- Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection’ (ICSI), this deals with injecting a single sperm into the egg. After this is done it is moved into the woman’s uterus. This treatment is for men that produce little amounts of sperm.

Aii. I am going to explain the Christian attitudes to these treatments. Roman Catholics are against all the treatments for infertile couples because it is not natural since sexual intercourse is not involved. They believe that life is a gift from God and so only God has the right to decide who this gift will be given to. The Roman Catholics have this approach because none of the treatments have any sex act. They say that God’s plan for reproduction demands sex to be a portion of it. Also IVF compromise throwing away the unwanted eggs or using them for investigation which is no different from abortion. This is not right as it is murder. Masturbation by the male is a part of ‘Artificial Insemination’ and ‘Surrogacy’; this is regarded as a sin. The Catechism of the Catholic Church says that, “These techniques infringe the child’s right to be born of a father and mother known to him”. This indicates that some treatments don’t allow the child to know who their parents are.Religion and Medical Ethics Essay.

The other Christian churches have different attitudes and allow IVF and AIH. They believe that the rejected embryos are not foetuses and that it’s appropriate to use available resources to supply a husband and wife with the gift of children. The main reason they allow these treatments is because the egg and sperm are from the husband and wife. The other churches don’t allow the other treatments because they often question the identity of the child which could create legal issues. They have no problems with IVF and AIH because the egg and sperm are from the husband and wife.

Hindus believe that they are basically using science for couples to have children. They say that the unwanted embryos have no soul. The law of Manu convinces infertile couples to adopt from a relative. This is popular with large families. The main reason for embryo donation and AID for being unaccepted is because in this the caste is overtaken through the father. Hindus are not in favour of surrogacy or egg donation but some do approve of it if all the other methods have been tried and if there’s good protection. Suetasuatara Upanishad 5:1-2 says, “The one who rules both knowledge and ignorance… alone presides visible forms and all the sources of birth”. This shows that even after all these different treatments, God is the one that decided and rules every womb.

Aiii. Religious people may have problems with transplant surgery. One reason for this is that it is mostly done on brain dead patients who are on life support machines. This means that the patient is unconscious. A doctor named Mr. Pallis regards this as a kind of death because the heart is only beating because of the life support machine. Another reason is the case of selecting organs to go in and out of the body. Some Christians say organs cannot be purchased because taking advantage over the poor is not allowed in the bible. They believe that there are such organs like the heart which is a native part of a single human, which has been invented by God. Some Christians will not carry a donor card because they believe that it pays no attention to the sanctity of life and some Christians believe that transplanting organs from the lifeless to the living is God’s role not humans. Most Muslims agree with this because the Qur’an says that God has created life and so to remove parts from one body from another is an action against God which is considered as a sin. Also the Shari’ah teaches that no part of a body should be separated after death. This is influenced by the Muslim belief in the sanctity of life.Religion and Medical Ethics Essay.

Hindus say that a person should not try and escape from the suffering that has come or is going to come to them by having a transplant because this is against the law of karma. The law of karma says that whatever happens to one is a result of their karma’s (deeds). If one has done bad deeds/sins they will have to suffer the consequences. One major problem the Hindus are concerned with is that the people that do not have enough money might go to an extent where they will be willing to sell their organs or even be prepared to die so that it can supply money for the family. Hindus believe that violence is wrong; this is known as ‘Ahimsa’ and say that transplant surgery is doing harm to the person donating an organ.Religion and Medical Ethics Essay.

Evaluation Question.

“Only God has the right to interfere with our genes”.

Every living organism has genes; its characteristics and body appearance depend upon genes such as their height or blood type. Genetic engineering is the change done of the character of an organism by using the genetic material on purpose. It is done to cure and prevent diseases or even to create an organism with features that are desired. There are different theists that are for or against genetic engineering and there are atheists who are for and against genetic engineering.

Some atheists say that medical science is going to have at least a bit of genetic engineering involved because genetic research is an essential chapter of it. Atheists also say that genetic engineering displays the remedy for diseases that are not presently healable.

Other atheists say that genetic engineering should not be carried out because there’s not much knowledge about the long-term consequences. They are questioning genetic engineering for the fact that Dolly the clone is dead: Did cloning cause illness? They don’t want scientists to have so much control over human beings and plus they say that it regards the human body as an article of trade just like plants.

Liberal Protestants and Roman Catholics both believe that genetic engineering should be carried out to cure diseases. Liberal Protestants are not against using human embryos because Jesus was a healer himself who clearly demonstrated that Christians should do everything they can do to cure people, “He took our firmities and bore our diseases”: Matthew 8:14-17. They also support the ‘Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority’ for the statement that embryos can’t be accepted as developed human life until they are 14 days old. However the Roman Catholics reject this. They believe that life begins at conception and so destroying an embryo is regarded as murder. Exodus 2:13 says “You shall not murder”. Roman Catholics are repugnant in cloning humans because it deals with extracting cells and using human lives as if they are toys. They say it is different from having a twin brother or sister naturally.Religion and Medical Ethics Essay.

Other Christians are against any construction of genetic engineering. They believe that as humans we have no privilege to intrude God’s creation. They say that God created the genetic make- up of every human at the moment of conception. This supports the teleological argument that there’s a designer. If genetic engineering is carried out then that suggests that we think God has created a ‘Bad Design’. So genetic engineering is ‘playing God’ which is a sin. Other Christians also say that it is wrong to try and design living organisms to make the earth perfect because only heaven is perfect. Life is a test which determines if you will go to heaven or not. These Christians agree with the atheists for their arguments against genetic engineering.

Some Muslims say that genetic engineering is a good thing if it’s just used to cure disease. They believe this because the Qur’an and hadith teach every Muslim should do there best to try and heal diseases. They say that God wants us to reveal the genetic make-up of humans to ourselves to try and enhance life to improve his creation. They say that if researching drugs is allowed then genetic engineering should be allowed as well.Religion and Medical Ethics Essay.

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Illness and Medicine in Ancient History Essay.

 

We do not know what prehistoric people thought about causes of and cures for illness so we look at the Australian Aborigines who lived as hunter-gatherers until quite recently. Prehistoric people may have had different ideas. We just cannot be certain. Aborigines thought that illness was caused either by an evil spirit entering the body or by the person’s own spirit being taken out of the body. An enemy could do either of these by pointing a bone at another person and saying a special chant or spell. Charms could be worn to keep evil spirits away.

A Medicine Man could be brought in to deal with evil spirits possessing the ill person. Herbs and plants which could deal with everyday problems such as stomach upsets, burns and sprains were discovered and knowledge was passed down to others by word of mouth. Ancient Egypt Like most early people they thought that disease was caused by gods and spirits. Special prayers or spells could be said to make a person better. Charms could be worn to keep evil spirits away. A priest could be brought in to deal with evil spirits possessing the ill person. Illness and Medicine in Ancient History Essay.

Later healing was done by people who were not priests. A class of doctors emerged. A belief spread that some diseases had natural causes and came about when the internal channels of the body became blocked. Medicines were given to unblock these channels e. g. substances to make the patient sick or go to the toilet. Herbs and plants which could deal with everyday problems such as stomach upsets, burns and sprains were discovered and knowledge was passed down to others after a system of writing had developed. Ancient Greece

The Greeks at first thought that things which they did not understand e. g. earthquakes and diseases were caused by gods. Temples called Asceplia were dedicated to a legendary god or healer called Asceplios and were built all over Greece. Patients would sleep in these and during the night they believed that Asceplios and his two daughters, Panacea and Hygea, would treat the sick. Snakes would lick the affected parts. In the morning the patient would wake up cured. These temples were so calm and peaceful that they became the Greek equivalent of our health farms and convalescent homes. Illness and Medicine in Ancient History Essay.

Patients whose illnesses were caused by stress and worry could recover. As in Egypt a belief later spread that illnesses had natural causes and cures. Hippocrates and his followers put forward the Four Humour Theory. They noticed that whenever some one was ill one or more of four liquids (or humours) was present. (BLOOD, PHLEGM, YELLOW BILE AND BLACK BILE) They were confusing EFFECTS of the illness with the CAUSES of it. Treatments were developed to remove the extra amount of humour or to encourage more of it to be produced. Hippocrates also developed the writing down of symptoms.

This was called clinical observation and doctors could tell the patients how the disease would develop and give medicines to treat each stage. They also thought that exercise and diet could help to maintain a balance of humours and body temperature e. g. eating a lot and drinking little in winter and eating less and drinking a lot in summer. Ancient Rome The Romans also thought that gods could cause and cure illness. They accepted Greek ideas and believed in building temples to Asceplios. They also accepted the Four-Humour Theory.

Galen reinforced the belief in this and prescribed the use of opposites e. g. Hot showers for people suffering with colds and lettuce and cucumbers for those with fevers. They were a very practical people and also saw the value of exercise in preserving health. They built a temple to Febris, goddess of fever but showed the practical side of their nature by draining the marshes which spread malaria. Their main contribution to the history of Public Health is their recognition that diseases were spread by poor drinking water and poor disposal of sewage.

They built aqueducts to bring fresh wsaer into their settlements from springs and latrines and sewers to take sewage into the rivers. They did not just build these in Rome. Everywhere they settled they were ready to build aqueducts, latrines and sewers. There are remains of aqueducts (the bridge-like structures which carried water across valleys) in Italy, Spain and France. They also used herbs as medicines and we can read about these in books that Doctors wrote. The Middle Ages There was a return to a belief in supernatural causes and cures for illness.

Illness was thought to be a punishment from God for sins. Touching holy objects, saying special prayers or visiting the tomb of a saint could help to bring cures. (Remember the film “Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade”) After the fall of the Roman Empire there was about 700 years of confusion and attacks. The Roman Catholic Church helped to keep alive the ideas of the Romans and Greeks. The four-humour theory seemed sensible and doctors believed in this. Galen had set out the ideas of the Greeks so well that he was thought to be right about everything.

Anyone who suggested new ideas would be attacked by the Church and possibly burned as a heretic. The Great Plague which first reached Europe in 1347 inspired a number of theories about its cause e. g. a punishment from God, bad smells, the close position of the three great planets, Saturn, Jupiter and Mars. Herbs and flowers were carried to try to remove the bad smells. Renaisance times Many of the old ideas continued e. g. disease being a punishment from God, bad smells spreading disease, the value of herbs, the position of the moon, stars and planets affecting health and the four humour theory. Illness and Medicine in Ancient History Essay.

Printing helped to spread new ideas very quickly. Vesalius pointed out the mistakes that Galen had made. Pare suggested using cool lotions on wounds instead of boiling oil and he sewed up cut blood vessels after amputations but infection still killed many of his patients. The one important breakthrough was Harvey’s discovery of how the blood circulated. Knowledge of this rarely improved treatments and an incorrect belief in the value of bleeding patients still continued. Illness and Medicine in Ancient History Essay.

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