Mass Incarceration

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Mass Incarceration
Paper details:
Working with what you see as the strongest evidence provided by various authors we read, particularly, but not restricted to, Davis (2003), Alexander (2012), Wacquant (2010), and Gottschalk (2006), briefly explain the rise of mass/hyper-incarceration in the U.S. Next, make an argument for what you see as a compelling approach to decarceration at micro, meso/mezzo, and/or macro levels. Be sure to demonstrate that you have thought about how intersectional analysis is relevant to this subject. The course readings appear below and you are welcome to bring in other references that you see as offering strong support for the case you are making or effectively challenging arguments made by authors we read in the seminar.
Remember the general guidelines for these essays:
• Although there is no minimum required number of pages for comprehensive examination answers, and focused, thorough, accurate writing is paramount, to achieve a well-developed answer, most students submit 10-15 pages for each comprehensive examination subject area.
• The number of references cited in an examination will vary depending on the subject area, focus of the question, and the body of literature informing the subject area. There is no required number of references, but most students cite 8-16 references per comprehensive examination subject area, depending on the nature of the references (i.e., books, book chapters, scholarly articles).
Readings, COMM 731, Fall 2015
Alexander, M. (2012). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. Rev. ed. New York, NY: The New Press.
Bassischus, M., Lee, A., & Spade, D. (2011). Building an abolitionist trans & queer movement with everything we’ve got. In E. A. Stanley & N. Smith (Eds.), Captive genders: Trans embodiment and the prison industrial complex (pp. 15-40). Oakland, CA: AK Press.
Berger, D. (2014). The struggle within: Prisons, political prisoners, and mass movements in the United States. Oakland, CA: PM Press.
Brown, M. (2009). The culture of punishment: Prison, society, and spectacle. New York, NY: New York University Press.
Brown, M. (2014). Visual criminology and carceral studies: Counter-images in the carceral age. Theoretical Criminology, 18(2), 176–197.
Davis, A. (2003). Are prisons obsolete? New York, NY: Seven Stories Press.
Davis, A. M. (2014). Apologies, reparations, and the continuing legacy of the European slave trade in the United States. Journal of Black Studies, 45(4), 271–286.
deVuono-powell, S., Schweidler, C., Walters, A., & Zohrabi, A. (2015). Who pays? The true cost of incarceration on families. Oakland, CA: Ella Baker Center, Forward Together, Research Action Design.
Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. (A. Sheridan, Trans.). 2nd ed. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
Gottschalk, M. (2006). The prison and the gallows: The politics of mass incarceration in America. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Haney, L. A. (2010). Working through mass incarceration: Gender and the politics of prison labor from East to West. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture & Society, 73-97.
Hartnett, Wood, & McCann, B. (2011). Turning silence into speech and action: Prison activism and the pedagogy of empowered citizenship. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 8(4), 331-352.
Jacobsen, C. , & Lempert, L. B. (2013). Institutional disparities: Consideration of gender in the commutation process for incarcerated women. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture & Society, 39(1)265-289.
Kilgore, (2015). Mass incarceration: Examining and moving beyond the new Jim Crow. Critical Sociology, 41(2), 283–295.
Kim, M. E. (2010). Moving beyond critique: Creative interventions and reconstructions of community accountability. Social Justice, 37(4), 14-35.
Mogul, J. L., Ritchie, A. J., & Whitlock, K. (2011). Queer (in)justice: The criminalization of LGBT people in the United States. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. [Chap. 5: Caging deviance: Prisons as queer spaces]
Novek, E. (2013). “People like us”: A new ethic of prison advocacy in racialized America. In S. J., Hartnett, E. Novek, & J. K. Wood, Working for justice: A handbook for prison education and activism (pp. 203-220). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
PCARE. (2007). Fighting the prison industrial complex: A call to communication and cultural studies scholars to change the world. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 4(4), 402-420.
Schept, J. (2013). “A lockdown facility … with the feel of a small, private college”: Liberal politics, jail expansion, and the carceral habitus. Theoretical Criminology, 17(1), 71-88.
Wacquant, L. (2010). Class, race & hyper incarceration in revanchist America. Daedalus, 139(3), 74-90.
Wald, K. (1980). The San Quentin Six case: Perspective and analysis. Social Justice: A Journal of Crime, Conflict & World Order, 40(1-2), 231-251.
Weaver, V. M., & Lerman, A. E. (2010). Political consequences of the carceral state. American Political Science Review, 104(4), 817-833.
Woolford, A., & Ratner, R. S. (2010). Disrupting the informal–formal justice complex: On the transformative potential of civil mediation, restorative justice and reparations politics. Contemporary Justice Review, 13(1), 5–17.
Yousman, W. (2013). Challenging the media-incarceration complex through media education. In S. J., Hartnett, E. Novek, & J. K. Wood, Working for justice: A handbook for prison education and activism (pp. 141-159). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.


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As a sociologist, review and discuss the historical importance of ?race?

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tage 1(Only) – Introduction (Inequality)
STAGE 1 You need to write a one-full (bottom) page introduction explaining what you are doing in the Handbook and naming the topic you will be analyzing for the application?Step ?f? above. This will be your application topic for all the Handbook entries. A PARTIAL SAMPLE HANDBOOK ENTRY: (STAGE ONE) The very first page of the entire Handbook needs to do three things: One, it should explain what you are seeking to accomplish here?to give yourself a permanent record of what you learned, to see how classical theory applies to a contemporary issue and to see how you can use theory both to explain the situation and to show you ways to study the situation. Two, it should make clear what the data source is, explain why you picked this topic, summarize the main points of that data source and put it in context. So for instance, the data source I am using for this sample entry is Jonathan Rausch?s online response on the Brookings Institute website, to the 2015 Supreme Court ruling in favor of gay marriage in ?The Supreme Court weds gay marriage to family values? (https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2015/06/26/the-supreme-court-weds-gay-marriage-to-family-values/). Lastly, you have to discuss how the article connects with the theorists? perspectives on the other three stages above. (1) a comparison of the theories of Karl Marx and Jane Addams, (2) a comparison of the theories of Emile Durkheim and max Weber, (3) a comparison of two additional theorists. But you don?t need to explain it too deeply yet. (SEE THE HANDBOOK GUIDE FILE) **SEE AND REFER TO ALL THE SAMPLES I PROVIDE UNDER THE ATTACHED FILES** Make sure you tell why do you choose this article To tell a little bit about myself so you can include it in this stage 1 handbook assignment: ? I am an undergraduate student in the U.S. majoring in Sociology and have interest in sociology and criminal justice. ? I?m from Indonesia, and I?m planning to go back to my home country I want to get or be involved in Politics as a member of parliament/government leader there. So, how is it related to the article? How is it a concerned? TOPICS FOR APPLICATION IN HANDBOOK ENTRIES. You are to select one article about inequality in your home country (criminal justice). And I chose the topic about a corrupt police in Bali, Indonesia: http://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-advice/money/the-bribes-youll-probably-have-to-pay-in-bali/news-story/8bca987e6754d298629c56dbb8f4ca6f All essays should use ASA Style in references and citation: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/583/01/
STAGE 1 You need to write a one-full (bottom) page introduction explaining what you are doing in the Handbook and naming the topic you will be analyzing for the application?Step ?f? above. This will be your application topic for all the Handbook entries.
A PARTIAL SAMPLE HANDBOOK ENTRY:
(STAGE ONE) The very first page of the entire Handbook needs to do three things:
One, it should explain what you are seeking to accomplish here?to give yourself a permanent record of what you learned, to see how classical theory applies to a contemporary issue and to see how you can use theory both to explain the situation and to show you ways to study the situation.
Two, it should make clear what the data source is, explain why you picked this topic, summarize the main points of that data source and put it in context. So for instance, the data source I am using for this sample entry is Jonathan Rausch?s online response on the Brookings Institute website, to the 2015 Supreme Court ruling in favor of gay marriage in ?The Supreme Court weds gay marriage to family values? (https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2015/06/26/the-supreme-court-weds-gay-marriage-to-family-values/).
Lastly, you have to discuss how the article connects with the theorists? perspectives on the other three stages above. (1) a comparison of the theories of Karl Marx and Jane Addams, (2) a comparison of the theories of Emile Durkheim and max Weber, (3) a comparison of two additional theorists. But you don?t need to explain it too deeply yet. (SEE THE HANDBOOK GUIDE FILE)
**SEE AND REFER TO ALL THE SAMPLES I PROVIDE UNDER THE ATTACHED FILES**
Make sure you tell why do you choose this article
To tell a little bit about myself so you can include it in this stage 1 handbook assignment:
? I am an undergraduate student in the U.S. majoring in Sociology and have interest in sociology and criminal justice.
? I?m from Indonesia, and I?m planning to go back to my home country I want to get or be involved in Politics as a member of parliament/government leader there. So, how is it related to the article? How is it a concerned?
TOPICS FOR APPLICATION IN HANDBOOK ENTRIES. You are to select one article about inequality in your home country (criminal justice).
And I chose the topic about a corrupt police in Bali, Indonesia:
http://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-advice/money/the-bribes-youll-probably-have-to-pay-in-bali/news-story/8bca987e6754d298629c56dbb8f4ca6f
Introduction – SAMPLE #1
October 5, 2016
Classical Sociological Theory
Criminal justice reform has recently become a significant social and political issue in America. High profile shootings of unarmed individuals, charges of racial bias in policing, and charges of unconstitutional police tactics have illuminated the need for criminal justice reform. Recently, the Department of Justice Civil Rights Division investigated the Baltimore City Police after the controversial death of Freddie Gray stemming from his questionable arrest. A similar action took place after the controversial death of Michael Brown and the subsequent unrest that followed. The police departments of Ferguson and St. Louis County were found to have committed various violations of civil rights. Similarly, the Department of Justice report on Baltimore City Police found a multitude of civil rights violations including unconstitutional stops, searches and arrests, racial bias, and excessive force.
The report included so many glaring examples of civil rights violations it lead Washington Post journalist Radley Balko to state, ?I?ve read a lot of Justice Department reports on local police agencies. This is one of the worst I?ve ever seen? (Balko 2016). Blako?s Washington Post article titled ?The Justice Department?s stunning report on the Baltimore Police Department? chronicles the various violations quoted in the Department of Justice report. Radley Balko is a journalist currently working for the Washington Post where he writes about criminal justice, the drug war, and civil liberties. In 2013, Radley Balko published the book ?Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces?. According to his Washington Post bio, Balko?s work has been cited by the U.S. Supreme Court and the Mississippi Supreme Court.
As a student studying sociology and criminology, I am very interested the discourse surrounding the reform of police departments. In addition, I was raised in Baltimore which gives me a personal interest in the Department of Justice report on the Baltimore City Police. In this handbook, I will apply the theories of classical sociologists to the important topic of criminal justice reform.
Handbook Introduction ? SAMPLE #2
This Handbook will be examining the topic of raised Epipen prices, as discussed in the New York Times article entitled ?How Parents Harnessed the Power of Social Media to Challenge EpiPen Prices? by Tara Parker-Pope, a journalist and novelist who writes on health issues. This article discusses how one Brooklyn mother?s petition to address the rising cost of the EpiPen, a life-saving drug that treats severe allergic reactions, developed into a nationwide social media campaign that included signatures from 80,000 people and 121,000 letters sent to Congress demanding answers to this issue. Yet, despite the outrage from parents and families, patient advocacy groups have remained silent on the issue. The article asserts that this is most likely because organizations such as Food Allergy Research & Education (FARE) and the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA) have partnerships with Mylan, the company that is responsible for raising EpiPen prices (Parker-Pope 2).
I chose this article because I believe that the phenomenon of unfair EpiPen prices is indicative of the current state of the U.S. healthcare system today, in which many members of the upper and middle classes tend to view health care as a privilege rather than a right. The EpiPen is a life-saving drug, but because of its high prices, only the most privileged in the nation are able to afford it.
This Handbook seeks to apply the contemporary issue of raised EpiPen prices to the ideas of classical sociological theorists. By applying the ideas of classical theorists as stated in their writings, this handbook will examine how these theorists may have studied and explained the issue of raised EpiPen prices, and more generally, unfair drug prices.
Classical Sociological Theory ? SAMPLE #3
06 October 2016
Handbook Introduction: Topic and Purpose Statements
This handbook is an attempt to capture the core concepts and arguments from each theorist and to then apply those concepts to my chosen contemporary topic of millenials’ sexual habits. In doing so, I hope to explain both what is occurring and how it could be studied with regards to the methodological preferences of the theorists. I will not be hypothesizing as to how the theorists would react if they were alive today, but rather will be applying the concepts as they were written hundreds of years ago to my contemporary topic.
The data source I will be using is Tara Bahrampour?s article published on August 2, 2016 in the Washington Post titled ??There isn?t really anything magical about it?: Why more millennial are avoiding sex?. Tara Bahrampour is a staff writer for the Washington Post who writes about aging and generations. Her piece came in response to a study she cites in her piece by the Archives of Sexual Behavior which found those born in the 1990s more than twice as likely to be sexually inactive in their early twenties as previous generations (Bahrampour).
My interest in millennial sexual habits stems from my interest in the evolution of gender. I am interested in how the norms and expectations regarding sex have changed as gender has. The article provides multiple opinions as to why the change in sexual activity may have occurred, and I believe it would be helpful to use classical sociological concepts to explain the occurrence of increased sexual inactivity and the opinions on it provided in the article, ultimately furthering understanding of the theorists, their concepts, and my contemporary topic.
Classical Sociological Theory Handbook Introduction ? SAMPLE #4
This handbook serves as a reference regarding the key components of the theories and theorists studied in Classical Sociological Theory. Throughout this assignment, I intend to build a permanent record of what we learn in this class and discover ways in which classical theory relates to an issue of today?s times. Towards the fulfillment of the latter goal, I seek to uncover ways in which theory can be used to explain and study a given situation.
As stated, included in this handbook is an application of important sociological elements to a contemporary issue. The topic I have chosen to focus on is ?Millennials,? and the specific issue is the changing relationship this generation has with home ownership. The featured source of my analysis is Catherine Rampell?s August 22, 2016 Washington Post article ?Millenials aren?t buying homes. Good for them.? The article can be accessed through the following link: https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/millennials-arent-buying-homes–good-for-them/2016/08/22/818793be-68a4-11e6-ba32-5a4bf5aad4fa_story.html?utm_term=.6b1298cede91.
I chose this topic and article because of how relevant it is to myself currently. First off, I am a ?Millennial,? defined as a member of the generation born roughly between the years of 1980 and 2004. Added to that, I am a senior in college, facing an approaching graduation date, and thus the life decision surrounding my future living arrangements is not far off. This means that I fit precisely in the category of people that Catherine Rampell, the author and Washington Post opinion columnist, is referring to in this article. Rampell argues that Millenials are less likely than any group before to be the owners of a house, and that while the reasons for this can be attributed to various factors ? communitarian values, inability to afford housing, later marrying ages, etc. ? she contends that this trend is actually good. By living at home, Millenials can not only better save up to one day move out, but they also avoid being tied down to any one particular location before they are settled into a job that satisfies both their career field and monetary interests. In the end, it can be synthesized from Rampell?s findings that as economic circumstances change, a shift in generational values follows suit.
The remainder of this handbook will adhere to the following format: (1) a comparison of the theories of Karl Marx and Jane Addams, (2) a comparison of the theories of Emile Durkheim and max Weber, (3) a comparison of two additional theorists. In each of these entries, I will give a brief overview of each theorists? life and background, identify and discuss their major works and key concepts, summarize the main points of their theories, highlight foundational questions that should be asked when examining a situation from each theorists? perspective, and discuss how a sociologist would apply various theories to the contemporary issue at hand.


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As a sociologist, review and discuss the historical importance of ?race?

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For your answer, remember:
1) You must refer to material in the text AND lectures to get full marks.
2) You cannot use the material from one question to answer another (i.e., concepts/examples from a question
that is not on the actual exam to answer one that is).
3) Your audience on the exam should be someone who has never taken Sociology before. The best way to
teach the material is to identify where the concept(s) come from, define the terms/concepts and finally to
give your own examples to demonstrate your command of the material.
4) Doing everything in #1-3 ensures you will be in the B to B+ range ? the A lives in your mind and cannot
be taught by reading books or listening to lectures. The A answer goes beyond the content, beyond the
book, beyond the lectures, and interrogates the concept in a manner that confirms your deep
understanding of the material.
400-500 words for each question.
Question 1: As a sociologist, review and discuss the historical importance of ?race?. Using your
own contemporary examples, do you believe racism still exists today?
Ability to define/review/discuss historical importance of race/racialization up to 10 marks
Ability to use contemporary examples to support answer up to 5 marks
Clarity of argument, evidence of going beyond the text/lectures and students?
demonstrated command of the subject matter up to 5 marks
Question 2: From your text, review the two key changes influencing how families negotiate the
demands of generating income and managing household duties. (Be sure to
mention/define the impact of off-shifting and second shift in your answer).
Ability to describe/review the issues around income up to 5 marks
Ability to describe/review the issues around domestic duties up to 5 marks
Ability to define/discuss importance of off-shifting and second shift up to 5 marks
Clarity of argument, evidence of going beyond the text/lectures and students?
demonstrated command of the subject matter up to 5 marks
Question 3: Review and critique Ritzer?s McDonaldization thesis. Using your own examples, do
you believe the theory does/does not explain contemporary society?
Ability to review the 5 features of Ritzer?s McDonaldization thesis up to 10 marks
Ability to interrogate if/how the theory does/does not explain contemporary society up to 5 marks
Clarity of argument, evidence of going beyond the text/lectures and students? demonstrated
command of the subject matter up to 5 marks
Question 4: Review the Self-Fulfilling Prophecies and education as described in the text. Given
your own experiences, are these prophecies evident at UVic? If so, how/if not, why?
Ability to review/discuss the prophecies and education up to 10 marks
Ability to critique, as a sociologist, whether or not they are present at UVic up to 5 marks
Clarity of argument, evidence of going beyond the text/lectures and students?
demonstrated command of the subject matter up to 5 marks


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How Religion and Spirituality manifest in Society

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How Religion and Spirituality manifest in Society
In the contemporary world, Sociologists of religion have based their arguments that religion serves communities. This perspective has been supported by many sociologists who have studied the origins and implications of religion in our society. In addition, most sociologists argue that spirituality best serves individuals. Based on this intuition, we intend to explore how religion and spirituality manifest in society in past decades and the present generation. This study seeks to identify how religion and spirituality are related and their implications to the community and individuals.
There are many religious groups in the world today. People have the right to choose religion according to their beliefs and customs. Since time immemorial, religions existed and there are many forms of religion for instance, monotheism. In monotheism, there are basic tenets such as the postulation that existence begins and concludes at some moment. It states that there are individual events that begin and end, and are ordained by God (Lundscow 67). This reveals that religion existed because God had a purpose for everything. The monotheist holds a view that the one God is eternal with neither beginning nor end (Lundscow 67).
Religion refers to a belief in a supernatural power or powers. Therefore, religion plays a significant role in governing the moral behavior of man. Historically, religion has been the mediator between and individual and a sense of transcendence. On the other hand, spirituality is a term that has been used to refer to the sensitivity of the things of the spirit, hence; it depends on the premise that we regard man or other creation as composed not only of matter but things immaterial, invisible and beyond our present knowledge.
Thus, religion and spirituality are defining factors used in the determination of higher values of human life. They both have a function in the inner call of a person that corresponds to life in the world and life in God. According to Lundscow, religion and spirituality are both related since the relationship between the society and religion is the same (87).Sociologists agree that religion serves communities because of the various restrictions it imposes on man. Thus, it confines human activity to areas of living. In a sociological perspective, religion puts people under certain obligations to behave in a manner that is mandated by religion in social behavior. Thus, religion affects the conduct of a community in any form. All religions in the world have ordinances that define religious views either in worship, pilgrimage, ritual or ritual. The restrictions are lifted in certain stages where people’s lives are mainly considered as internal operation of thought, feeling, but not connected with human society in any way.
Religion has been manifested in human society in a number of ways. However, major religions of the world have the same goals. For instance, Christianity has manifested itself in the society and benefits Christian through spiritual practice and has the same effect of making communities better. All religions teach moral precepts that are vital in perfecting the functions of the human mind, body and speech. Hence religion best serves communities, since all religions agree upon the need to control the human mind that harbors selfishness and other forms of trouble. However, the link between religion and spirituality is that religion teaches humanity the path that leads to a spiritual state that is a peaceful, disciplined, ethical and wise mind. Different religions are intended to bring comfort and happiness to communities, by helping man to avoid misery and gain happiness. Hence, religion has contributed towards lessening human suffering and has contributed to world’s civilization. Religion serves as a common property to groups of people and expects its members to follow the various blue prints in terms of religious behavior. Humanity learns about religion through various kinds of interaction, hence; it is socially transmitted.
Religion is manifested in societies through supernatural powers. Hence, religion makes communities get involved in the formation of religious concepts and practices. Thus, religion does not exist independently. The social interaction between communities enables man to form certain norms and rules which holds people together as a group. There are norms that receive religious endorsement and have special strength for individuals who follow religious doctrines. Thus, in a community, religion a supernatural definition and acts as powerful social cement that serves to preserve social order and discourage social disorganization.
Historically, religion people contributed living and cognitive and cognitive qualities to forces of nature. For example, the characterization of nature was depicted by ancient feminine deity. This deity represented all kinds of women in society. Thus, most people argued that female deities and women had a central role in the pre-historic religion. Another example can be illustrated by the existence of a religious age of polytheism which indicated the existence of many Gods. In an ancient content, the word cult referred to an exclusive group dedicated to a deity. The concept of pantheon was also used to refer to a complete set of deities that existed in extensive trade contact and migration of people. Through human migration and trade, man introduced and shared beliefs and customs from different regions. In this context, we may illustrate by using the existence of Isis which found many followers throughout the Greco-Roman world.
Judaism is another example that led to the production of Jesus who greatly inspired religion that changed the world to Christianity. Religious groups increased in popularity during the years that Jesus came to redeem humanity. However, historically, Mithraism began as a tribal belief based on the life of an outstanding individual, (Lundscow, 65). For example, in Christianity, Jesus exemplifies the eternal power of religion; hence, he has remained much alive and powerful. In America, Jesus is seen as an icon and in as far away as China. Furthermore, in a religion such as Islam, there is also a belief in one God, and a messenger sent by God. This is a form in which exclusive monotheism has manifested itself in the society.
On the other hand, sociologists argue that spirituality serves individuals. Spirituality is a term used to identify the conscious recognition of a divine spark of human reasoning. Therefore, it makes man special compared to other creatures. For example, the divine spirit that was exemplified by the Renaissance, and among Christians, it was exemplified earlier by Christ Jesus where it got a brighter manifestation. Thus, the spiritual driver of civilization had been recognized in Europe for many centuries with an understanding that it caused the rebirth of the society on a foundation of spirituality.
According to Lundscow (135), the best example in which spirituality manifests itself in the society is through the creation of a room for renaissance. However, religion is much powered in the Confucianism ideology which purports that spirituality serves individuals. It has been noted that spirituality is a prime determinant that puts a distinction of schools of economics embracing poverty, underdevelopment, and depopulation. Spirituality serves individuals by embracing mankind’s potential for infinite development. A major identifier of spirituality is its universality. For example, the golden renaissance during the 16th century was neither a specific Catholic renaissance, nor a Christian renaissance. True spirituality exist with a corresponding manifestation in economic development, hence; the two cannot be isolated from each other. This becomes the problem with a religious zeal in which it is isolationist in nature. Religion is built on myths and focuses on esoteric aspects that do not meet the fundamentals of individual needs of the society. There have been dominant trends in religion today, for instance, according to Lundscow (71) the third awakening theory in which people established religion with new feelings followed by a secularized model in which religion became consumer oriented devoid of any meaning.
Finally, the revolutionary model in which religion is viewed creates a new and meaningful form of religion with oppressive and emancipator potential. In the modern era, spirituality has taken the past wisdom and placed into a modern concept. This has resulted into the creation of a more dynamic, and integral insights into the nature of existence. Through spirituality, we are able to a discern variety of truths from all times and traditions and integrate the perspectives into a holistic but a unique view of reality. According to most religions, the Supreme Being requires people to be good to one another. Hence, the central goal of spirituality is to make individuals happy and to feel good about them.
In conclusion, religion and spirituality are closely related, particularly in their manifestation in society from early times up to the present era. There has been a development of new perspectives regarding spirituality and religion including the idea or knowledge derived from multiple cultures. There have been various paths of wisdom and traditions, as well as, psychological and spiritual insights all over the world. Religion is dependent on spirituality; however, religion as stated in the thesis of this study better serves communities whereas spirituality is based on an individual’s attributes.
Work Cited
Lundscow, George. The sociology of religion and Substantive and Transdisciplinary (Chapter 2: A Sociological History of Religion). California: Sage Publications, 2008.
 


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