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Geographics

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Instructions:
Please follow all requirements while completing the assignment for this Lesson.
Do not leave a question unanswered
Utilize Proper short-answer format:
Respond to the question using two to three well-constructed paragraphs containing specific details and examples that support your understanding of the concepts.
Each short answer response should be a total word count of 150 – 300 words.
Carefully read each part of the question to ensure that each component is answered with the appropriate depth and detail.
Your answers should be free of spelling and grammar errors.
When using source material, you must properly document it using APA format (see Announcements for details on APA).
In order to help you understand proper methodology please leverage the short answer example for the course using the following link:
Short Answer Example
Follow all additional instructions
Use the following website to help you answer the short answer below.
latlong.net
Note: If you do use this resource you must cite it in order to avoid plagiarism
In your response, please include the number of the question next to your response for that particular question (in order for the instructor to know which question is being evaluated).

Question
1  of 1
Explain the movements of the Earth in the Solar System utilizing the following terms:
Revolution
Rotation
Plane of the Ecliptic
Axial Tilt
Each of these terms lends itself to understanding the motions of the Earth and should be analyzed in regards to:
Day Length
Year Length
In addition to this information conduct additional research to identify what season is experienced in the Southern Hemisphere on March 21 and explain why this season is experienced.
Explain the system of latitude and longitude utilizing the following terms:
North Pole
South Pole
Equator
Prime Meridian
180° Longitude
Each of these terms lends itself to understanding this system of measurement and should be analyzed in regards to:
Its measured location
Importance of the line
How the lines are measured or labeled
How a location on the globe is identified using latitude and longitude coordinates
Any other important information you find through research
In addition to this information you will also use the website link found in the short answer instructions to locate the latitude and longitude coordinates of Sao Paulo, Brazil as well as your own personal hometown. Once these coordinates are identified explain where these locations are in reference to one another and explain their position on earth with reference to the required terms for this assignment.
Explain the system of United States Public Land Survey System (PLSS) utilizing the following terms:
Township
Range
Section
Meridian
Baseline
Each of these terms lends itself to understanding this system of measurement and should be analyzed in regards to:
Use in locating places
Where this system of measurement is used
How a location in the United States is identified using PLSS
Any other important information you find through research
In addition to this information conduct additional research to identify if the state of New Mexico uses PLSS and if so, what is the name of the Principal Meridian used to located places in that state as well as where the intersection of said Principal Meridian and baseline is located.

THE ACTUAL LESSON (READING AND RESOURCES)

We begin to explore the surface of the Earth. While this exploration does not involve analyzing any of Earth’s processes, it does allow us to begin locating features. Of pivotal importance in geography is the ability to find locations for analysis purposes. While this ability is commonly taken for granted due to the expansion of technology, it remains an important skill. The method of locating features is done on a global scale using the geographic grid which is comprised of lines of latitude and longitude. In the United States, other locational methods are used to help map out land for purchasing, but in the end the geographic grid is the main method of finding locations. It is even the source of telling time in all locations around the world. Once you have gained an understanding of the geographic grid, you will begin to analyze locations for different properties and even map out these locations with high accuracy.
Readings, Resources, and Assignments
Required Readings This course uses open educational resources in the lessons. This content is in lieu of a required textbook for the course
Required Assignments Lesson 2 Short Answer
Check Prior Knowledge
Key Terms and Concepts
Having a firm grasp of the concepts from this lesson before moving on to other material is crucial. Please lookup the definition of each key term listed and study them.
Lesson 2 Key Terms
Check your prior knowledge of concepts and key terms PDF by completing the Lesson 2 Concept Check game.
Focusing Your Learning
Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
Locate places on the Earth using the geographic grid system.
Locate places on the Earth using the United States Public Land Survey System.
Make time zone calculations.
Instruction
The Geographic Grid
Locate places on the Earth using the geographic grid system.
Classify latitude and longitude lines used in the geographic grid.
Show how to locate places on Earth using latitude and longitude.
Use the metric system.
Geography is about spatial understanding, which requires an accurate grid system to determine absolute and relative locations. Absolute location is the exact x- and y- coordinates on the Earth. Relative location is the location of something relative to other features or landmarks. For example, when you use your GPS in your smartphone or car, you put in an absolute location. But as you start driving, the device tells you to turn right or left relative to objects on the ground: “Turn left on the street from Exit 202” is relative to the other exit points. You might give directions to your house and use relative locations to help the person understand how to get to there.
Great and Small Circles
Much of Earth’s grid system is based on the locations of the North Pole, South Pole, and Equator. The poles make up the end points of the imaginary line running through the Earth “vertically” along the axis of Earth’s rotation. The plane of the equator is an imaginary horizontal line that cuts the Earth into two equal halves. This brings up the topic of great and small circles (see Figure 1).

Figure 1
A great circle is any circle that divides the Earth into a circumference of two equal halves. It’s also the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere. The line connecting any points along a great circle is also the shortest distance between those two points. Examples of great circles include the Equator, all lines of longitude, the line that divides the Earth into day and night called the circle of illumination, and the plane of ecliptic, which divides the Earth into equal halves along the equator. Small circles are circles that cut the Earth, but not into equal halves. Examples of small circles include all lines of latitude except the Equator. This includes the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, the Arctic Circle, and the Antarctic Circle.

Figure 2
Latitude and Longitude
Many think that latitude is a line connecting points on the Earth, but it’s not. Latitude is an angular measurement north or south of the equator. So 30° north means a point that is 30° north of the equator. Latitude, as well as longitude, can also be expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds. This is done to allow for more precise measurements of locations by using fractions of a full degree. One degree is divided into 60 “minutes” (often written 60′) and each minute can be further divided into 60 “seconds” (60″). When you use Google Earth, the coordinate locations are in this degrees/minutes/seconds format. Latitude varies from 0° (equator) to 90° north and south (the poles). A line connecting all points of the same latitude is called a parallel, because the lines run parallel to each other. The only parallel that is also a great circle is the equator. All other parallels are small circles. The following are the most important parallel lines:
Equator, 0°
Tropic of Cancer, 23.5° N
Tropic of Capricorn, 23.5° S
Arctic Circle, 66.5° N
Antarctic Circle, 66.5° S
North Pole, 90° N (infinitely small circle)
South Pole, 90° S (infinitely small circle)
Latitude is also sometimes described as zones of latitude. Some of these zones of latitude include:
Low latitude—generally between the equator and 30° N
Midlatitude—between 30° and 60° N and S
High latitude—latitudes greater than about 60° N and S
Equatorial—within a few degrees of the equator
Tropical—within the tropics (between 23.5° N and 23.5° S)
Subtropical—slightly pole-ward of the tropics, generally around 25-30° N and S
Polar—within a few degrees of the North or South Pole
Longitude is the angular measurement east and west of the Prime Meridian (image on the right). Like latitude, longitude is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. Lines connecting equal points of longitude are called meridians. But unlike parallels, meridians do not run parallel to each other. Rather they are farthest apart from each other at the equator, and merge toward each other closer to the poles. The problem with longitude is that there isn’t a natural baseline like the equator is for latitude. For over a hundred years, nations used their own “Prime Meridians,” which proved problematic for trade. In 1883, an international conference in Washington, D.C., was held to determine a global Prime Meridian. After weeks of debate, the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, was determined as the Greenwich Meridian or also called the Prime Meridian for the world. So today, longitude starts at the Prime Meridian and measures east and west of that line.
At 180° of the Prime Meridian in the Pacific Ocean is the International Date Line. The line determines where the new day begins in the world. Because of this, the International Date Line is not actually a straight line; rather it follows national borders so that a country isn’t divided into two separate days (and people think hour time zones are a pain). If you look at the map below, the International Date Line is to the right in a dark, black line. Note how it is drawn to make sure nations are not divided by the International Date Line.

Figure 3
The Metric System
A final item to discuss at this point is in the metric system. Did you know that only three countries in the world do not use the metric system? They are Burma, Liberia, and the United States. Due to this, it is important to have a general understanding of this system because geography is global, and the metric system comes up from time to time.
The metric system is the most universally used system of measurement in the world. France was the first country to adopt the metric system in December 1799. In 1960, the name was changed to the Systeme International d’Unites, or the International System of Units (SI). SI is based on powers of 10 and base units. A table of base units is shown below. The conversion factors are based on powers of 10.
Quantity Measured Abbreviation Base Unit Symbol
Length L meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Temperature T Celsius C
Amount of Substance n mole mol
Electric Current I ampere A
Standard US Measurements to Metric Units Conversion Factors
1 foot = 0.3048 meters
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 mile = 1.609 kilometers
1 gallon = 3.785 liters
1 pound = 0.4535 kilograms
Metric prefixes in everyday use
Text Symbol Factor
tera T 1,000,000,000,000
giga G 1,000,000,000
mega M 1,000,000
kilo k 1,000
hecto h 100
deca da 10
(none) (none) 1
deci d 0.1
centi c 0.01
milli m 0.001
micro μ 0.000001
nano n 0.000000001
pico p 0.000000000001
Example:
The base unit “meter” and some of the commonly used prefix combinations:
1 millimeter = 1/1000th of a meter
1 centimeter = 1/100th of a meter
1 decimeter = 1/10th of a meter
1 decameter = 10 meters
1 hectometer = 100 meters
1 kilometer = 1,000 meters

Locating Places
Locate places on the Earth using the United States Public Land Survey System.
Illustrate the use of Base Line and Principal Meridian to locate a specific place.
Use Township, Range, and Section to describe a location.
The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) is a way of subdividing and describing land in the United States. All lands in the public domain are subject to subdivision by this rectangular system of surveys, which is regulated by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (BLM).
The PLSS is used to divide public domain lands, which are lands owned by the U.S. Federal government for the benefit of the citizens of the United States. The original public domain included the land ceded to the Federal Government by the 13 original States, supplemented with acquisitions from Native Americans and foreign powers. It encompasses major portions of the land area of 30 southern and western States. Since the original PLSS surveys were completed, much of the land that was originally part of the public domain has been transferred to private ownership, and in some areas, the PLSS has been extended, following similar rules of division, into nonpublic domain areas. PLSS rules of division are explained below.
The PLSS typically divides land into 6-mile-square townships. Townships are subdivided into 36 1-mile-square sections. Sections can be further subdivided into quarter sections, quarter-quarter sections, or irregular government lots. Normally, a permanent monument or marker is placed at each section corner. Monuments are also placed at quarter-section corners and at other important points, such as the corners of government lots. Today, permanent monuments are usually inscribed tablets set on iron rods or in concrete. The original PLSS surveys were often designated by wooden stakes or posts, marked trees, pits, piles of rock, or other less-permanent markers.
The PLSS consists of a series of separate surveys. Most PLSS surveys begin at an initial point, and townships are surveyed north, south, east, and west from that point. The north-south line that runs through the initial point is a true meridian and is called the Principal Meridian. There are 37 Principal Meridians, each named, and these names are used to distinguish the various surveys. The east-west line that runs through the initial point is called a baseline. This line is perpendicular to the Principal Meridian.

Figure 4
This BLM map depicts the principal meridians and baselines used for surveying states (colored) in the PLSS
Each township is identified with a township and range designation. Township designations indicate the location north or south of the baseline, and range designations indicate the location east or west of the Principal Meridian. For example, a township might be identified as Township 7 North, Range 2 West, which would mean that it was in the seventh tier of townships north of a baseline, and in the second column of townships west of a principal meridian. A legal land description of a section includes the State, Principal Meridian name, Township and Range designations with directions, and the section number: e.g., Nebraska, Sixth Principal Meridian T7N, R2W, sec5.

Time Zone Calculations
Make time zone calculations.
Describe the International Date Line and its implications for time.
Use the time zone equation to solve for time zone differences.
Interpret Daylight Savings Time.

Figure 5
Early agricultural societies found that local noon could be determined by observing the changing length of the shadow cast by a stick that was placed perpendicular to the ground. Local noon is the time at which the shadow is the shortest length cast of the day. Romans used this principle to design their sundials, calling their noon position of the Sun the “meridian” (meridiem – the Sun’s highest point of the day). It was difficult to compare time as one traveled to different localities as each city adjusted its clocks to their own local noon. Because the Earth rotates toward the east, towns to the east experienced solar noon earlier while those to the west experienced it later.
Standard Time
As cross-country travel and communication became faster and more efficient, a standardized system of global time was required. Given the Earth rotates once throughout a 24-hour period, 24 standard time zones were agreed upon at the 1884 International Prime Meridian Conference. The local solar time at Greenwich, England was designated the prime meridian. Each time zone extends 7.5o on either side of a central meridian. For years, the global standard for reporting time was Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). GMT is now referred to as Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) or Coordinated Universal Time, but the Prime Meridian is still the reference for standard time. It uses the 24-hour time (military) notation based on the local standard time at the Prime Meridian of 0° longitude. Midnight corresponds to 00:00 UTC and noon to 12:00 UTC.

Figure 6
International Date Line
In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan and crew set out on their westward journey from Spain to circumnavigate the Earth. Upon their return 3 years later, they discovered that their meticulously kept logs were off by 1 day. This was one of the first recorded experiences with changing global time. This early experience would ultimately lead to the establishment of the International Date Line. The International Date Line is an imaginary line that separates one day from another. It roughly follows the 180° meridian from the North Pole through the Pacific Ocean to the South Pole, deviating around some territories. Crossing the line when traveling east, one turns the calendar back a full day. Traveling west, one moves the calendar forward one day. The Prime Meridian lies opposite the International Date Line.
Calculating Time Differences
Nowadays, people generally use a computer to find out is the time in another location. However, since you know how time zones are broken out, you can calculate times in other locations. If you know the longitude of both locations (as long as they are in the same hemisphere), you can use this to calculate the time by inputting them into this equation.
(Longitude1−Longitude2)15°=TimeDifference(Longitude1−Longitude2)15°=TimeDifference
The value obtained from this equation will tell you how many hours’ difference is between the two locations, which will allow you to identify the time in the second location if given a starting time. Once you have the time difference, you will either add or subtract time from your starting location based on whether the second location is to the east (add time) or west (subtract time) of the starting location.
This equation becomes complicated when the two locations are in different hemispheres, since you may have to cross the International Date Line. If one of your longitude values is in a different hemisphere the equation now becomes the following:
(LongitudeEast+LongitudeWest)15°=TimeDifference(LongitudeEast+LongitudeWest)15°=TimeDifference
The value obtained from this new equation results in a time difference between the two locations. Just be aware that when you cross the International Date Line (or pass midnight when you are counting back from one time to another), your day changes.
Daylight Saving Time
Many countries observe daylight saving time – the practice of setting clocks forward 1 hour in the spring and back 1 hour in the fall. First proposed by Benjamin Franklin, the notion of extending daylight 1 hour into the evening didn’t catch hold until World War I as a means of energy savings. It became widely adopted, particularly in North America and Europe, starting in the 1970s as a result of the energy crisis. Some countries, territories, and states in the United States do not observe daylight saving time. Daylight Saving Time begins in the spring when clocks are set forward 1 hour and ends in the fall when clocks are set back 1 hour.

Map Projections
Describe how map projections are used to map the Earth.
Describe a map projection.
List the different types of map projection possible.
Identify what properties can be maintained in a map projection.
A map projection is a method of portraying the curved surface of the Earth on a flat planar surface of a map. Projections are created to preserve measurements of one or several of the following properties:
Area
Form/Shape and Angle
Distance
Direction
It is important to consider the purpose of the map when choosing a projection to illustrate spatial patterns of Earth’s phenomena.
People often talk about map projections in terms of how they distort or preserve certain features about the Earth, which are called projection properties. There are four main properties:
Area — Some projections distort areas (e.g., Mercator projection).

Figure 8
A Mercator Globe Projection showing the Earth as a rectangle. Lines of latitude and longitude are displayed at 90° angles to one another, but are spaced as they would appear on a globe rolled out flat.
Notice how Greenland is about as big as South America on a Mercator projection. In reality, South America is eight times larger than Greenland. The Mercator projection doesn’t preserve area correctly, especially as you get closer to the poles. On the other hand, one kind of projection that doesn’t distort area is the Cylindrical Equal Area.

Figure 9
A Cylindrical Globe Projection showing the Earth where a theoretical cylinder would touch the surface of a globe. Areas outside of the cylinder are stretched to match where the cylinder would touch. This causes distortion as one progresses away from the equator.
Notice here how Greenland looks the right size compared to South America. Projections that preserve areas are called equivalent or equal-area projections. A map projection either preserves areas everywhere or distorts them everywhere. This is an all-or-nothing property.
Form/Shape and Angle — Some projections distort the “form” of features (e.g., Azimuthal Equidistant).

Figure 10
An Azimuthal equidistant Projection showing the Earth as if viewed from the poles. Lines of latitude and longitude are properly spaced, but shapes of the land become distorted as one progresses away from the center point.
On the projection above, look at how Australia, on the right, is unrecognizable, and New Zealand is stretched out into a ring around the left edge of the map. This projection does not preserve the look or the form of places. It stretches, twists, or squashes them instead. Contrast that with a Lambert Conformal Conic (below), on the other hand, which preserves the general form of the landmasses.

Figure 11
A Conic Globe Projection showing the Earth where a theoretical cone would touch the surface of a globe. Areas outside of the cone are cut off the map. This allows for proper spacing of latitude and longitude lines.
Projections like this are called conformal projections. Under the hood, this property is actually a little more complex: conformal projections preserve local angles. This means places look more like themselves.
Notice how the conformal projections keep Greenland looking like Greenland. The shape changes some, and parts of the island appear larger or smaller, but they all have the same general form, even if they aren’t exactly alike. In the same way, a rectangle and a square have the same general form despite being different shapes, whereas a square and a circle do not.
Like equal area, this property is all-or-nothing; your projection either preserves forms everywhere on the map, or it doesn’t preserve them anywhere.
Distance — Most projections distort distances (e.g., Equirectangular projection).

Figure 12
An Equirectangular projection showing the Earth as a rectangle. Lines of latitude and longitude are displayed at 90° angles to one another, but our equally spaced for consistency.
A trip from Madison, Wisconsin to Buenos Aires is much farther than a trip from Madison, Wisconsin to Madrid. But on an Equirectangular projection, both of those trips looks like they’re the same length, because this projection does not preserve distance. On the other hand, the Azimuthal Equidistant projection shows distances in the correct proportion.
There’s a catch, though. While some map projections can preserve areas or form everywhere on the map, there isn’t one that can preserve distances everywhere. Projections only let you preserve distances relative to just one or two points on the map. Distances to and from the center of an Azimuthal Equidistant map are shown correctly, but distances between any other two points are distorted. When a projection preserves distance, you call it equidistant.
The properties of area, distance, and form are mutually exclusive. If you have a map projection that preserves one, it will distort the other two.
Directions — Sometimes a straight line isn’t the shortest path!

Figure 13
New York City and Istanbul are on nearly the same line of latitude, about 41°N. That means if you head due east on a straight line from New York, you’ll reach Istanbul. But that doesn’t mean this is the shortest distance between the two cities.
In this image, the line shows the straightest, simplest path between New York and Istanbul, which is simply to point yourself east, and start flying. But the curved line above it shows the way you should go if you’d like to travel the shortest distance while getting there. Because the Earth’s surface is curved, the shortest paths around it are curved, too. This can be a bit confusing, but makes more sense if you try it yourself: try to find a globe and place a piece of string on it. Pin one end to New York and one to Istanbul, and pull the string taut. You’ll notice that the string covers the exact same path as the curved route in the map above. These curved shortest-distance paths are known as great circle routes. On the other hand, a path like the straight line, where you keep yourself pointed in the exact same compass direction the whole time, is called a rhumb line or a loxodrome.
When a projection preserves great circle routes as straight lines, it is known as an Azimuthal projection. Unfortunately, much like the equidistant projections, it only works for one point at a time. In the Stereographic above, the projection is centered on New York. Only straight lines coming into or going out of New York will be great circles. A straight line between Madrid and Casablanca won’t be.
Compromises — Do nothing perfectly, but most things well enough.
If you skim through the example images above, you may notice that, as a general trend, distortions tend to get worse and worse as you get near the edges of the maps. One area usually looks OK and isn’t too distorted, and then things start to get crazy the farther you move away from that area. As an example, on the Azimuthal Equidistant above, Australia’s shape is distorted heavily, but the British Isles look fine. As a general rule, the larger the area your map shows, the worse the distortions will be, especially as you move away from the center. What all this means is that people are most worried about distortions when they map large areas like the world, and less when they map smaller areas like cities or states.
To solve the problem of world maps with severe distortions at the edges, people have come up with compromise projections. These special projections represent tradeoffs: While most projections have minimal distortion in one area but distort heavily as you move away from that area, compromise projections distort a moderate amount everywhere. The Robinson projection is one example of a compromise projection.

Figure 14
A Robinson Globe Projection showing the Earth as a rectangle, but with curved edges to represent the curvature of the Earth. Lines of latitude are straight while lines of longitude curve toward the poles.
Compromise projections distribute the distortion somewhat evenly. The plus side of this is that no place gets ridiculously distorted. This is what makes compromise projections good for world maps. The downside is that there’s no longer an area that has almost no distortion, like you might find on most other projections. This is why compromise projections should not be used for making maps of continents, countries, or most anything that’s not the whole Earth. Compromise projections spread the distortion more evenly throughout the world, but if you’re not showing the whole world, you don’t need to make the low-distortion areas of the map worse just so the high-distortion areas (which are off the edge of your map) are better.
Compromise projections don’t preserve areas, forms, or distances, but they get close on all of them. They have a low level of distortion overall, even if they don’t preserve any one thing exactly. If the map you’re making requires you to preserve something specific like area, a compromise projection won’t meet your needs.
Within the realm of maps and mapping, three surfaces are used for map projections (i.e., surfaces on which to project the shadows of the graticule). These surfaces are the plane, the cylinder, and the cone. For example, surfaces can be tangential to the globe along the Equator or poles, they can pass through or intersect the surface, and they can be oriented at any number of angles.
In fact, naming conventions for many map projections include the surface as well as its orientation. For example, as the name suggests, “planar” projections use the plane, “cylindrical” projections use cylinders, and “conic” projections use the cone. For cylindrical projections, the “normal” or “standard” aspect refers to when the cylinder is tangential to the equator (i.e., the axis of the cylinder is oriented north-south). When the axis of the cylinder is perfectly oriented east-west, the aspect is called transverse, and all other orientations are referred to as oblique. Regardless the orientation or the surface on which a projection is based, a number of distortions will be introduced that will influence the choice of map projection.
When moving from the three-dimensional surface of the Earth to a two-dimensional plane, distortions are not only introduced but also inevitable. Generally, map projections introduce distortions in distance, angles, and areas. Depending on the purpose of the map, a series of tradeoffs will need to be made with respect to such distortions.
Map projections that accurately represent distances are referred to as equidistant projections. Note that distances are only correct in one direction, usually running north-south, and are not correct everywhere across the map. Equidistant maps are frequently used for small-scale maps that cover large areas because they do a good job of preserving the shape of geographic features such as continents.
Maps that represent angles between locations, also referred to as bearings, are called conformal. Conformal map projections are used for navigational purposes due to the importance of maintaining a bearing or heading when traveling great distances. The cost of preserving bearings is that areas tend to be quite distorted in conformal map projections. Though shapes are more or less preserved over small areas, at small scales, areas become wildly distorted. The Mercator projection is an example of a conformal projection, and is famous for distorting Greenland.
As the name indicates, equal area or equivalent projections preserve the quality of area. Such projections are of particular use when accurate measures or comparisons of geographical distributions are necessary (e.g., deforestation, wetlands). In an effort to maintain true proportions in the surface of the Earth, features sometimes become compressed or stretched depending on the orientation of the projection. Moreover, such projections distort distances as well as angular relationships.
As noted earlier, there are theoretically an infinite number of map projections to choose. One of the key considerations behind the choice of map projection is to reduce the amount of distortion. The geographical object being mapped and the respective scale at which the map will be constructed are also important factors to consider. For instance, maps of the North and South Poles usually use planar or azimuthal projections, and conical projections are best suited for the middle latitude areas of the Earth. Features that stretch east-west, such as the country of Russia, are represented well with the standard cylindrical projection, while countries oriented north-south (e.g., Chile, Norway) are better represented using a transverse projection.
If a map projection is unknown, sometimes it can be identified by working backward and closely examining the nature and orientation of the graticule (i.e., grid of latitude and longitude), as well as the varying degrees of distortion. Clearly, there are tradeoffs made with regard to distortion on every map. No hard-and-fast rules apply as to which distortions are preferred over others. Therefore, the selection of map projection largely depends on the purpose of the map.

Map Scales
Identify how map scales are used.
List the three types of scales that can be used on a map.
Contrast small- and large-scale maps.
Maps are never drawn at the same scale as the real world. Most maps are made at a scale that is much smaller than the area of the actual surface being depicted. The reduction amount is normally identified somewhere on the map. This measurement is commonly referred to as the map scale. Conceptually, you can think of map scale as the ratio of the distances between any two points on the map compared to the actual ground distance represented. This concept can also be expressed mathematically as:
On most maps, the map scale is represented by a simple fraction or ratio. This type of description of a map’s scale is called a representative fraction. For example, a map where one unit (centimeter, meter, inch, kilometer, etc.) on the illustration represents 1,000,000 of these same units on the actual surface of the Earth would have a representative fraction of 1/1,000,000 (fraction) or 1:1,000,000 (ratio). Of these mathematical representations of scale, the ratio form is most commonly found on maps.
MapScale=MapDistanceEarthDistanceMapScale=MapDistanceEarthDistance
Scale can also be described on a map by a verbal statement. For example, 1:1,000,000 could be verbally described as “1 centimeter on the map equals 10 kilometers on the Earth’s surface” or “1 inch represents approximately 16 miles.”
Most maps also use graphic scale to describe the distance relationships between the map and the real world. A graphic scale uses an illustration to depict distances on the map in common units of measurement. Graphic scales are quite useful because they can be used to quickly measure distances on a map.
Map scales are also grouped into small, medium, and large categories. Large-scale maps, such as 1:24,000 scale maps, show a smaller area in great detail. They are useful for showing the locations of buildings and other features important to engineers and planners. Medium scale maps (1:62,500) are good for agricultural planning where less detail is required. Small scale maps have the least detail but show large areas. These are useful for extensive projects at regional levels of analysis. You can easily see the impact of map scale below.

Figure 15: Large Scale

Figure 16: Medium Scale

Figure 17: Small Scale

Interpreting Maps
Name essential map elements, and list modern methods of creating maps.
List the required items every map should contain.
Describe the purpose of isolines on a map.
Identify methods utilized in creating modern maps.
Read topographic maps using map symbols.
Map Elements
As you continue your analysis of maps in this lesson, it is important to understand the elements that all maps should include.
Title
Usually draws attention by virtue of its dominant size; serves to focus attention on the primary content of the map. Should be an answer to “What? Where? and When?”
Legend
The principal reference to the map symbols; subordinated to the title. However, this is still a key element for map reading describing all unknown or unique map symbols used.
Map scale
Provides the reader with important information regarding linear relations on the map. A scale can be numerical (for example, 1:50000) or graphical.
Credits
Can include the map source, the author, indication of the reliability of accuracy of the map, dates, or other explanatory material
Mapped area
Objects, land, water, and other geographical features important to the purpose of the map
North arrow
According to the rules, each map should have a north arrow. But if the map is north oriented, or if the geographical coordinate is already on the map, the north arrow can be omitted.
Date
A map is only as good as the date located on the map. Any information shown can be considered out of date after the map is created.
Isolines
Maps can also be used for a certain purpose. This is typically done through the use of isolines. An isoline is a line that connects points of equal value. For instance, the brown contour lines on a topographic map connect points of equal elevation. Isobars are used to show the distribution of air pressure. Some common isolines encountered in physical geography are:
Isotherm: a line connecting points of equal temperature
Isohyet: a line that connects points of equal precipitation
Isobar: a line that connects points of equal pressure
Isophene: a line representing points where biological events occur at the same time, such as cops flowering
Isopleth: a line connecting points of equal numerical value, like population
Isotach: a line of equal wind speed
Isobath: a line representing points of equal water depth
A few rules apply to isolines. First, a set interval exists between consecutive isolines called the isoline interval. Second, two different isolines cannot cross each other. If they did, it would mean two different values are at the same location. Third, values inside a closed isoline are either higher or lower than those outside.
Because the interval between isolines is constant, their spacing gives a visual indication of the change that occurs over a given distance, called a gradient. The more closely spaced the isolines, the larger the gradient is.
Modern Mapping
Computers and technology have contributed major advancements in many fields of study, which have also touched the world of mapping. Thanks to technology, there are three items, in particular, that aid in creating modern maps.
First, for years, geographers used aerial photographs to study the Earth’s surface. In many ways, air photographs are better than maps. They provide people with a real world view of the earth’s surface, unlike a map, which is just a representation of the real world. Aerial photographs can be used to make the same measurements that people make on a map, as they too are a scaled image of the surface.
Secondly, to get a much larger view of the earth’s surface features, geographers have turned to using remotely sensed data from satellites. Satellite sensors scan the surface, and break it down into picture elements or pixels like those displayed on your computer monitor. Each pixel is identified by coordinates known as lines (horizontal rows) and samples (vertical columns). As the satellite scans the ground, it transmits this information to earth-based receivers, the same way a television station broadcasts a signal to your television. The digital data received is processed in a variety of ways: simulated natural color, “false” color, signal filtering, enhanced contrast, etc.
Finally, advanced computer technology has placed new tools in the hands of geographers to not only create maps much more efficiently, but to analyze spatial data in map form as well. A geographic information system is a computer-based technology that enters, analyzes, manipulates, and displays geographic information. It is a marriage between computer-based cartography and database management. A simple way of visualizing a geographic information system is to think of a set of clear documents. On each document is a map of a particular set of data. By layering the information one piece on top of the others, a geographer can show the relationship and degree of connectivity between various datasets. Geographic information systems are being employed to study a number of geographic issues like flood hazard mapping, earthquake hazard studies, economic market area analysis, etc.
Topographic Maps
A topographic map is a detailed and accurate two-dimensional representation of natural and human-made features on the Earth’s surface. These maps are used for a number of applications from camping, hunting, fishing, and hiking to urban planning, resource management, and surveying. The most distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the three-dimensional shape of the Earth’s surface is modeled by the use of contour lines. Contours are imaginary lines that connect locations of similar elevation. Contours make it possible to represent the height of mountains and steepness of slopes on a two-dimensional map surface. Topographic maps also use a variety of symbols to describe both natural and human made features such as roads, buildings, quarries, lakes, streams, and vegetation.
Topographic maps produced by the Canadian National Topographic System (NTS) are generally available in two different scales: 1:50,000 and 1:250,000. Maps with a scale of 1:50,000 are relatively large-scale covering an area approximately 1000 square kilometers. At this scale, features as small as a single home can be shown. The smaller scale 1:250,000 topographic map is more of a general purpose reconnaissance-type map. A map of this scale covers the same area of land as sixteen 1:50,000 scale maps.
In the United States, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) has been making topographic maps since 1879. Topographic coverage of the United States is available at scales of 1:24,000, 1:25,000 (metric), 1:62,250, 1:63,360 (Alaska only), 1:100,000, and 1:250,000.
Topographic Map Symbols
Topographic maps use symbols to represent natural and human constructed features found in the environment. The symbols used to represent features can be of three types: points, lines, and polygons. Points are used to depict features like bridges and buildings. Lines are used to graphically illustrate linear features. Some common linear features include roads, railways, and rivers. However, you also need to include representations of area in the case of forested land or cleared land; this is done through the use of color.
The set of symbols used on Canadian National Topographic System maps are standardized to simplify the map construction process. A description of the complete set of symbols available is in a published guide titled “Standards and Specifications for Polychrome Maps.” This guide guarantees uniform illustration of surface features on both 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 topographic maps. Despite the existence of this guide, you can find some topographic maps using different symbols to depict a feature. This occurs because the symbols used are graphically refined over time; as a result, the “Standards and Specifications for Polychrome Maps” guide is always under revision.
The tables at the link below describe some of the common symbols used on Canadian National Topographic System maps (source: Centre for Topographic Information, Natural Resources Canada). See the following link for the symbols commonly used on USGS topographic maps.
Contour Lines
Topographic maps describe vertical information through the use of contour lines (contours). A contour line is an isoline that connects points on a map that have the same elevation. Contours are often drawn on a map at a uniform vertical distance. This distance is called the contour interval. The map below shows contour lines with an interval of 100 feet. Note that every fifth brown contour line is drawn bold and has the appropriate elevation labeled on it. These contours are called index contours. On this example, they represent elevations of 500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000 feet, and so on. The interval at which contours are drawn on a map depends on the amount of the relief depicted and the scale of the map.
A Topographic Map showing the elevations of a region through the usage of contour lines. Area of ground are shown in brown, water in blue, and forested areas in green. The lines of elevation are brown and are placed at the contour interval of the map.
Figure 18: Portion of the Tofino 1:50,000 National
Contour lines provide a simple, effective system for describing landscape configuration on a two-dimensional map. The arrangement, spacing, and shape of the contours provide the user of the map with some idea of what the actual topographic configuration of the land surface looks like. Contour intervals spaced closely together describe a steep slope. Gentle slopes are indicated by widely spaced contours. Contour lines that V upwards indicate the presence of a river valley. Ridges are shown by contours that V downwards.
Topographic Profiles
A topographic profile is a two-dimensional diagram that describes the landscape in vertical cross-section. Topographic profiles are often created from the contour information found on topographic maps. The simplest way to construct a topographic profile is to place a sheet of blank paper along a horizontal transect of interest. From the map, the elevation of the various contours is transferred on to the edge of the paper from one end of the transect to the other. Now, on a sheet of graph paper, use the x-axis to represent the horizontal distance covered by the transect. The y-axis represents the vertical dimension, and measures the change in elevation along the transect. Most people exaggerate the measure of elevation on the y-axis to make changes in relief stand out. Place the beginning of the transect as copied on the piece of paper at the intersect of the x- and y-axes on the graph paper. The contour information on the paper’s edge is now copied onto the piece of graph paper.
Check Your Knowledge
Take the self-study quizzes for this lesson. Some of these questions may show up on your Midterm Exam. You will also see other questions on the exam that were not in the self-study quiz, but they will be based on information in the course material.
Complete the Lesson 2 Check Your Knowledge quiz.
Assessing Your Learning
Submit your assignments for grading.
Complete and submit Lesson 2 Short Answer (40 points).
Grading RubricPDF
Short Answer Response ExamplePDF
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Warning: You are expected to submit your own, individual work. Using work completed by anyone other than yourself is plagiarism. This includes resources found on Internet sites. Posting assessments on an unauthorized website, soliciting assessment answers or the acquisition of assessments, assessment answers, and other academic material is cheating. Cheating and/or plagiarism will result in a failing grade for the course.
References
Dastrup, A. (n.d.). “Geographic Grid System.” Retrieved July 22, 2017, from https://courses.candelalearning.com/geophysical/chapter/geographic-grid-system/
The National Atlas of the United States of America. (n.d.). “Article.” Retrieved July 22, 2017, from http://nationalmap.gov/small_scale/a_plss.html

 
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